The vanadium redox battery (VRB), also known as the vanadium flow battery (VFB) or vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), is a type of rechargeable flow battery. It employs vanadium ions as charge carriers. [5] Contact online >>
The vanadium redox battery (VRB), also known as the vanadium flow battery (VFB) or vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), is a type of rechargeable flow battery. It employs vanadium ions as charge carriers. [5]
Called a vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), it''s cheaper, safer and longer-lasting than lithium-ion cells. Here''s why they may be a big part of the future — and why you may never see one.
Researchers from MIT have demonstrated a techno-economic framework to compare the levelized cost of storage in redox flow batteries with chemistries cheaper and more abundant than incumbent vanadium.
Conventional cost performance models were introduced by Sprenkle and co-workers based on electrochemical models taking account of pump losses and shunt current for 1 MW all-vanadium and iron-vanadium batteries [23].
The battery capital costs for 38 different organic active materials, as well as the state-of-the-art vanadium system are elucidated.
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The most advanced RFB technology is based on vanadium salt electrolytes. Assemblies of all-vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB) are used in residential storage systems, as well as in large-scale energy storage systems for grid applications4. They show good long-time stability with a battery lifetime of up to 20 years5. One major disadvantage is the high acquisition cost for the needed electrolytes, as well as the used ion exchange membrane. Moreover, the high costs of vanadium salts are fluctuating because of their connection to industrial steel production3. To overcome this burden and to reduce the overall cost of a redox flow system, current research is focused on finding novel active materials3,6,7.
Despite being convincing in terms of their potential advantages, organic active materials for RFBs are still struggling with drawbacks. Organic molecules undergo multiple degradation reactions, which could have a significant impact on the overall battery performance. Currently, the long-term stability of organic active materials cannot compete with their inorganic counterparts10. Additionally, many molecules that are studied show low solubility in water-based electrolytes, in some cases not fully compensated by an increased number of transferred electrons, leading to insufficient energy density1,3.
Although finding novel organic active materials is still the focus of research, multiple start-up companies on organic RFBs have been founded recently, illustrating the increased relevance of this technology. Companies such as Kemiwatt15 (France), CMBlu16 (Germany), CERQ17 (Germany), or Quino18 Energy (USA) are promoting RFBs with organic active materials19.
The code of the developed tool ReFlowLab using the herein presented TE model can be obtained from the following link: https://github /Domeml94/ReFlowLab21.
To adjust for possible changes in costs due to possible optimization states of the RFB system, we discuss the results for both the AqORFB and the VRFB by means of two self-defined scenarios (cf. Table 1), with: (a) "Present Case", using state-of-the-art values as reported in literature or given by industry/companies. This choice implies that we apply an estimated material price at the present moment given by literature. The Nafion membrane is selected as separator material. Further semipermeable materials like polybenzimidazole (PBI) or anion exchange membranes, to account for different pH values and chemistry of organic active materials, are not considered due to lack of available data and the scope of this work on a general outline of all RFB cost contributions22.
Table 1 specifies the assumed values and explains the conditions for each of the two scenarios used for the model evaluation.
With the predefined RFB system in terms of capacity and power as well as the targeted working point (WP) and operational lifetime the capital cost of the selected active materials is calculated and visualized in Fig. 1.
Looking at Fig. 1a, b in detail, a wide range (approximately 400 $ kWh−1 to 106 $ kWh−1) of material cost results for AqORFBs is depicted. In both cases, almost all of the 38 molecules are more expensive than the vanadium reference system (results above the reference lines of VRFB 676.7 $ kWh−1 Present Case, up to 758.0 $ kWh−1 Future Case, respectively). In the Present Case, only three phenazines yield capital costs underneath the 676.7 $ kWh−1 of the vanadium electrolyte, with 1,6-DPAP (3,3''-(phenazine-1,6-diylbis(azanediyl))dipropionic acid) having the lowest cost with 504.7 $ kWh−1.
According to the observations above, the to-be-expected capital cost is highly influenced by the difference in physical and electrochemical properties of active materials. The results reveal that only few promising active materials with Future Case capital costs lower than VRFBs are reported in the literature. Thereby, 1,6-DPAP is the active material with the lowest expected cost. It might be reasonable to steer future research in the direction of finding active materials within the molecule groups of phenazines and quinones for negolytes. Pang et al.22 already published highly stable phenazines where the capacity loss was not detectable, further highlighting this material class but excluded in our calculations due to a missing value of the capacity faded rate.
The shown capital costs for industrial-scaled systems represent expected benchmark values due to the required assumptions in this model. The literature values of active materials used for our calculations are based on lab-scale RFB setups. These tests are usually performed under controlled conditions such as a constant room temperature and an inert gas atmosphere. The air stability of the organic active materials may serve as another criteria in assessing applicability within future studies. Maintaining an inert atmosphere to prevent parasitic oxidation of the molecules with atmospheric oxygen would increase the overall RFB costs in real applications10,25. A transfer of the herein-gained knowledge to an industrial scale would be particularly useful.
The observation that fewer molecule classes for posolytes are discussed in literature indicates the challenge for researchers in this field. With a distinct lack of promising posolyte active materials, much effort needs to be invested into the development of new molecules with high redox potential.
To further understand the cause of the wide price range observed, analyzing merely the capital cost is not sufficient. Therefore, Fig. 1c unravels the three main contributions to Ccapital.
Figure 1c is a bar plot of the minimal capital cost for the Future Case scenario from each group (negolyte, posolyte) and the mid-price VRFB, showing a detailed breakdown of the cost contributions. Focusing on the power cost a difference between VRFB and the organic molecules is visible, with the VRFB showing a higher value. The parameter Celectrolyte reveals a significantly smaller contribution by the organic active materials. The posolyte TEMPTMA (N,N,N−2,2,6,6-heptamethylpiperidinyl-oxy-4-ammonium chloride) shows the lowest electrolyte cost. Moreover, using organic molecules requires maintenance costs, with TEMPTMA exhibiting a substantial cost contribution. The VRFB has negative maintenance costs due to recycling earnings marked as striped bar.
Next, the plant maintenance cost for the chosen posolyte material stands out. According to Eq. (6) the plant maintenance cost contains costs for the stack as well as the electrolyte exchange. Due to the capacity fading of 0.27% d−1 the TEMPTMA electrolyte needs to be exchanged frequently over the operational lifetime of the considered RFB with an annual exchange fraction f of 0.99 y−1. 1,6-DPAP in comparison is reported with a capacity fading of 0.0015% d−1 leading to an annual exchange of 0.005475 y−1 28,29.
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