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We thank our many co-workers who have contributed to the work presented in this review. C.P.G. thanks J. Griffin for his critical reading of the manuscript. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union''s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ ERC grant agreement no. 102539.
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
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DOI: https://doi /10.1038/nenergy.2016.70
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The authors would like to thank the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, EP/V027433/1, EP/533581/1), the Royal Society (RGSR1211080; IECNSFC201261) and Faraday Institution (EP/S003053/1) Degradation project (FIRG001) for financial support.
Mr. Yiyang Liu visualized and wrote the original draft. Prof. Paul R. Shearing wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. Dr. Guanjie He conceived, supervised, wrote, reviewed, and edited the manuscript. Prof. Dan J. Brett helped in funding acquisition, supervision, writing, review, and editing.
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Figure 1. (A) Energy storage technologies used at different scales in the power system (IEA, 2014; Aneke and Wang, 2016). (B) Mechanism of formation of the electrostatic double-layer (EDL) in a SC. In the associated electric circuit, capacitors Ce1 and Ce2 represent the contribution to the total capacitance of the EDL formed at the surface of each electrode. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is also shown.
Figure 3. Different configurations for the electrochemical characterization of SCs: (A) three-electrode cell, (B) two-electrode cell, and (C) T-type cell.
Figure 4. Expected behavior of a supercapacitor (SC) and a pseudocapacitor (PSC) compared to that of an ideal SC during different electrochemical tests: (A) cyclic voltammetry, (B) galvanostatic charge-discharge, and (C,D) electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Simplified equivalent circuits for: (E) ideal SC, (F) SC, and (G) PSC.
Table 1. Properties of aqueous and organic electrolytes often used in SCs (Lide, 2004; Conte, 2010; Zhong et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2018).
Figure 5. Schematic production process of activated carbons, from biomass and char, by physical or chemical activation.
Figure 7. (A) Schematic synthesis of OMCs by hard and soft template methods. (B,C) Hard-templated OMCs using SBA-15 as template and aminobenzoic acid as precursor (Adapted from Sánchez-Sánchez et al., 2016 by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry). (D,E) Soft-templated OMCs using Pluronic® F127 as template and mimosa tannin as precursor (Adapted from Castro-Gutiérrez et al., 2018 by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 8. (A) Oxygen and nitrogen surface functional groups commonly associated with the enhanced performance of carbon-based SCs. Proposed reactions of such (B–F) oxygen and (G–K) nitrogen surface functionalities (Chen et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2016; Sánchez-Sánchez et al., 2016).
Figure 9. Main flavonoid units of condensed tannins, along with the plant commonly used for their extraction (Fierro et al., 2018; Shirmohammadli et al., 2018).
Table 2. Hazard statements for phenol, resorcinol, formaldehyde, and tannin with data from the Kim et al. (2018) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety Health (2018).
Table 3. Summary of methods, properties and electrochemical performance of tannin-derived carbon materials.
Keywords: supercapacitors, energy storage, porous carbons, OMCs, tannins
Citation: Castro-Gutiérrez J, Celzard A and Fierro V (2020) Energy Storage in Supercapacitors: Focus on Tannin-Derived Carbon Electrodes. Front. Mater. 7:217. doi: 10.3389/fmats.2020.00217
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