The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, they are Contact online >>
The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors. Lead–acid batteries suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan (usually less than 500 deep cycles) and overall lifespan (due to the double sulfation in the discharged state), as well as long charging times.
Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leaking. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position were first used in the late 1920s, and in the 1930s, portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell to be mounted vertically or horizontally (but not inverted) due to valve design.[11] In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA), or sealed, battery was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat (AGM) types, allowing operation in any position.
It was discovered early in 2011 that lead–acid batteries do in fact use some aspects of relativity to function, and to a lesser degree liquid metal and molten-salt batteries such as the Ca–Sb and Sn–Bi also use this effect.[12][13]
In the discharged state, both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water.
The release of two conduction electrons gives the lead electrode a negative charge.
As electrons accumulate, they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode from the solution, which limits further reaction, unless charge is allowed to flow out of the electrode.
taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of PbO2.
The net energy released per mole (207 g) of Pb(s) converted to PbSO4(s) is approximately 400 kJ, corresponding to the formation of 36 g of water. The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mole, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 2-volt cell (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). This comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but in practice, a lead–acid cell gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.
In the fully-charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate is lead dioxide. The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy.
Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead–acid battery (eg "flooded", but not VRLA (AGM or gel)) allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost this way.
Because of freezing-point depression, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze in a cold environment when the battery has a low charge and a correspondingly low sulfuric acid concentration.
Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries: it is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of differing density. When used in diesel–electric submarines, the specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.[14]
The battery''s open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge.[15] If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole; otherwise, the overall battery voltage may be assessed.
IUoU battery charging is a three-stage charging procedure for lead–acid batteries. A lead–acid battery''s nominal voltage is 2.2 V for each cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge.
The lead–acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However, such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for only a few minutes.
Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté''s design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of forming was required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially, this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of producing batteries greatly declined.[8] Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area.
The open-circuit effect is a dramatic loss of battery cycle life, which was observed when calcium was substituted for antimony. It is also known as the antimony free effect.[21]
About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead–acid battery rated around 60 A·h is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case.[8] For example, there are approximately 8.7 kilograms (19 lb) of lead in a typical 14.5-kilogram (32 lb) battery.
Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short circuits through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators allow the flow of ions between the plates of an electrochemical cell to form a closed circuit. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but it deteriorates in the acid electrolyte.
An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties, including permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery''s operating temperature range.
To reduce the water loss rate, calcium is alloyed with the plates; however, gas build-up remains a problem when the battery is deeply or rapidly charged or discharged. To prevent over-pressurization of the battery casing, AGM batteries include a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA) designs.
Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material and is mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell, slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a characteristic bulging in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes, due to the expansion of the positive plates.
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