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Rosato, A.; Perrotta, A.; Maffei, L. Commercial Small-Scale Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines: A Comprehensive Review of Geometry, Materials, Costs and Performance. Energies 2024, 17, 3125. https://doi /10.3390/en17133125
Rosato A, Perrotta A, Maffei L. Commercial Small-Scale Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines: A Comprehensive Review of Geometry, Materials, Costs and Performance. Energies. 2024; 17(13):3125. https://doi /10.3390/en17133125
Rosato, Antonio, Achille Perrotta, and Luigi Maffei. 2024. "Commercial Small-Scale Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines: A Comprehensive Review of Geometry, Materials, Costs and Performance" Energies 17, no. 13: 3125. https://doi /10.3390/en17133125
Rosato, A., Perrotta, A., & Maffei, L. (2024). Commercial Small-Scale Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines: A Comprehensive Review of Geometry, Materials, Costs and Performance. Energies, 17(13), 3125. https://doi /10.3390/en17133125
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According to the International Energy Agency, the installed wind power capacity should increase 11 times between 2020 and 2050 to meet the global net-zero emissions by 2050 objective1. Wind power is expected to cover up to 31% of the electricity supply by 2050, which is logistically challenging as the overall capacity is limited by the availability of exploitable land2,3. The installation of new wind farms alters wind conditions and decreases the performance of existing downwind farms4,5. An increase in diversity of wind turbine technology can help mitigate concerns around land use and wake interference6,7.
The aerodynamic complexity of vertical-axis wind turbines has hampered their industrial development and deployment. The turbine blades encounter varying flow conditions throughout a single turbine rotation, even in a steady wind. When the turbine operates at a low tip-speed ratio λ, which is the ratio between the blade velocity ΩR, and the wind velocity U∞, the blades perceive significant amplitude changes in the angle of attack and relative wind velocity (Fig.1). These varying flow conditions can give rise to unsteady flow separation or dynamic stall15,16,17,18.
In general, dynamic stall refers to the succession of aerodynamic events that occur when an airfoil''s angle of attack exceeds its critical static stall angle following a dynamic motion19. Early observations of dynamic stall were made by Kramer20. Later, it became a topic of interest in helicopter rotor aerodynamics, which motivated a series of investigations using pitching and surging airfoils that revealed the sequence of events that lead to full stall on unsteady airfoils. This sequence consists of the spread of flow reversal over the chord, the formation of a large-scale leading edge stall vortex and associated lift overshoot, followed by the increase of the nose-down pitching moment and vortex shedding21,22,23,24.
For wind turbine applications, the large-scale vortex shedding and load fluctuations associated with dynamic stall are considered undesirable because they lead to a significant loss in efficiency and load transients that jeopardise the turbine''s structural integrity31,32,33. Control strategies at the blade scale include surface actuators, such as plasma actuators34,35 or blowing and suction slots36,37. The goal of these strategies is to locally energise the boundary layer near the surface and delay or prevent separation. High installation and maintenance cost have hampered the commercial deployment of such blade surface flow actuators.
The net power Pnet accounts for the power cost of actuating the turbine blade. More details on the calculation of the power coefficient can be found in the Methods.
We couple the turbine model to a genetic algorithm-based optimiser and perform series of automated experiments to determine optimal pitching kinematics for two wind scenarios that are typically encountered by industrial wind turbines. For a given wind turbine geometry, there is an optimal tip-speed ratio at which the turbine reaches its maximum power coefficient51. An industrial wind turbine will tune its rotational frequency to operate at the optimal tip-speed ratio for a given wind speed. Structural constraints limit the maximum rotational frequency. Once the turbine reaches its maximum rotational frequency, a further increase in wind speed will decrease the tip-speed ratio.
The first scenario we consider relates to this off-design condition where excessively high wind speeds caused the turbine to operate at a tip-speed ratio below its optimal value. Low tip-speed ratios lead to prohibitively high and unsteady loads acting on the turbine blades52. This high wind scenario threatens the turbine''s structural integrity and is associated with a loss of efficiency. We performed a tip-speed ratio sweep and determined that λ = 1.5 is representative of a low tip-speed ratio for our turbine geometry (Supplementary Fig.1).
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