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Description of figures from left to right. (a) Growth of global BEV sales. (b) Problems preventing BEV growth. (c) Single charge range and battery charging time of high-end BEVs.
Description of figures from left to right. (a) P2C2 enabled charge sharing among BEVs and MoCS-based charge distribution for charging on-the-go11. (b) A MoCS leader escorting/recharging a BEV platoon.
In particular, we make the following major contributions:
We introduce a novel solution to address the BEV charging issue by proposing an on-the-go peer-to-peer charge sharing scheme. We formalize a complete framework that enables BEVs to share charge on the go guided by a cloud-based control system.
We introduce the concept of mobile charging stations that seamlessly fit into our framework. These mobile charging stations are deployed in charge-deprived regions to boost the overall network charge level.
We introduce the idea of multi-level battery architecture, which can help reduce vehicle-to-vehicle contact time during on-the-go charge sharing.
We formalize the decision-making process of the control system and propose an algorithm for efficient charge transaction scheduling, optimal MoCS insertion, and optimal rerouting.
We quantitatively analyze the effectiveness of our solution using the simulation frameworks that we have developed. Through statistical analysis, we project the effective greenhouse gas emission reduction possible through a P2C2 framework.
In this section, we shall look at different issues preventing BEVs from being widely adopted. We will also analyze some of the proposed solutions and qualitatively compare them to P2C2.
BEVs have been around since 1823, but despite substantial corporate and government effort, it is still not a viable transport solution for the masses. Several battery-related concerns such as limited range, battery cost, and lack of charging stations have deterred consumers from allowing BEVs to become mainstream.
The life of a Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery degrades faster if it is subject to complete discharge or inefficient charging cycles. Li-ion batteries are widely used in BEVs13. Hence, completely draining the BEV battery may be undesirable to the car owners. Hence, if the user chooses to avoid accelerated battery ageing, then it virtually decreases the BEV''s range. Also, BEVs are generally more expensive than their traditional ICE vehicle counterparts due to high battery manufacturing cost.
Issues relating to the battery and charging appears to be the core hurdle preventing a full-scale adoption of BEVs. Next, we shall discuss some of the proposed existing solutions aimed at countering battery related issues in BEVs. Table 1 provides a comparison among existing solutions and P2C2 (proposed).
Several research and industry efforts are also being made towards developing battery swapping techniques21,22. However, such battery swapping stations are very expensive to build and a large number of such stations will be required to support a big BEV fleet. Directly accessing the BEV battery (mostly located at the base of the BEV to lower the center of gravity) is also challenging and will require major changes to the core BEV architecture.
Several solutions have been proposed around the idea of BEV-to-BEV charge sharing at designated hubs. A hub can be an aggregator or a charging station. In works such as8,22, the BEVs parked at a hub share charge among each other and the grid to optimize overall charging efficiency. The aggregator can also allow direct V2V charge sharing bypassing the grid15,16,17. Such a hub will be less expensive to build than a charging station because no grid connectivity is required.
The idea of trucks distributing charge to regions lacking charging stations has been proposed in19,24,25. The trucks initially receive charge at a depot and then travel to a designated spot in which this charge can be distributed via stationary V2V charging. Additionally, to counter the lack of BEV charging ports in parking lots, the concept of a robot-like charging entity has been proposed that can move around the parking lot and serve multiple BEVs20.
However, relying on designated hubs such as aggregators and charging stations to share charge is both expensive and inconvenient due to significant infrastructure requirements. Hence in works such as7,18, the authors experiment with V2V charge sharing without the availability of any designated hubs. The game theory based solution in7 achieved improved charge sharing efficiency in comparison to other techniques. Yet, for all of these solutions, the BEVs must be parked at equipped parking lots and remain stationary during the entire charging process.
Charging BEVs from the road can be an effective solution, but it may not be the most efficient. A road in Normandy, France, was fitted with solar panels to generate electricity in 2018. It produced only a total of 80,000 kWh in that year and about 40,000 kWh by the end of July 20196. The lack of efficiency was due to (1) Normandy''s climate (average 44 days of sunshine), (2) damaged solar panels, and (3) obstructions from leaves. Converting every major roadways in the world into electric/solar roads is a big financial undertaking, rendering this solution practically infeasible.
A wireless charging solution was proposed by Kosmanos, D.et al.9 which involves charging BEVs from a Bus or Truck. State-of-the-art wireless charge transfer techniques have efficiencies of about 40–60%. A coil of 340 cm or 11.15 feet in diameter has a maximum 60% power transfer efficiency while transmitting across 170 cm or 2.2 feet10. Such a small distance is extremely unsafe for on-the-go charging in most traffic scenarios and building/hosting such huge coils on both the receiver and the transmitter can be challenging.
Refueling of an ICE vehicle is both fast and easy to the point that it is not even a concern, no matter how long a trip is. Similarly, if re-charging a BEV can be achieved without long wait time, meticulous planning, and lengthy detours, then ICE vehicle owners may get enticed to make the switch to BEVs. Solutions such as increasing battery size and building faster charging stations only serve as band-aids to the inherent BEV battery-related problems. Although V2V charging schemes can somewhat mitigate the lack of charging stations, it does not eliminate the need to remain stationary while charging and endure long travel time loss. The only functional on-the-go charging solution, solar road charging, although intriguing, is not financially feasible.
We hypothesize that if BEV-to-BEV charge sharing can be done on-the-go (while in motion), then it can (1) eliminate re-charging wait time, (2) increase battery life by avoiding inefficient charging cycles, (3) eliminate range anxiety by reducing reliance on charging stations, (4) reduce BEV cost by eliminating the need to have big batteries, and (5) reduce greenhouse gas emission if MoCS are powered via renewable sources. Based on this hypothesis, we design our peer-to-peer on-the-go charging system called P2C2.
Our proposed framework, P2C2, enables BEVs to carry out charge transactions between them while on-the-go. In this paper, we build on the fundamental principles presented in11 and enhance the potency of the methodology by introducing the concept of multi-level battery architecture that acts as a charge-caching mechanism for decreasing BEV-to-BEV contact time. We validate this concept by designing a multi-level battery simulation setup and performing a comprehensive study on the effectiveness of P2C2 when utilizing multi-level battery architectures. Additionally, we discuss different mechanical/electrical aspects of on-the-go charge sharing and investigate possibilities for greenhouse gas emission reduction through P2C2.
(a) In a P2C2 framework, BEVs and MoCS interact with each other and a control system for information/instruction sharing. The control system located in the cloud facilitates BEV-to-BEV charge sharing and optimal MoCS insertion. (b) The paired BEVs are being guided by the control system to move closer and share charge. (c) Paired BEVs speed lock and share charge on-the-go11.
Description of figures from left to right. (a) The system-level view of the P2C2 framework shows the data and control flow between different entities. (b) With a two-level battery architecture, the fast (but smaller) battery can be used for BEV-to-BEV charge transfer and once detached, the smaller battery can recharge the slower-main battery.
Offloading the charging process of the slow/bigger battery to the detached state reduces contact time while increasing system safety and traffic efficiency. The multi level battery architecture can reduce contact time with little effect on the manufacturing cost. Through extensive simulations, we provide evidence for this claim in "Effectiveness of ML battery architecture" section.
At the core of the P2C2 framework resides the control system, which is responsible for optimal BEV-to-BEV pairing, MoCS insertion, and multilevel battery state switching. All these tasks can be envisioned as an optimization problem, and in Table 2, we list a set of core parameters and variables for this optimization task. Based on the application scenario, we first capture the requirements using an optimization formulation as shown in Eqn. (1). This formulation is then periodically referred to by different entities in the system to make optimal decisions (see Fig. 4a, left sub-figure).
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