Further information for all the levels of charging is provided in Table 1. As a test case, the Nissan Leaf® 24 kWh Li-ion battery pack is considered [14]. Contact online >>
Further information for all the levels of charging is provided in Table 1. As a test case, the Nissan Leaf® 24 kWh Li-ion battery pack is considered [14].
The review of available Level 3/DC fast-charging techniques is the cornerstone of this paper. The advantages and limitations are also highlighted for better clarity.
Generally, DC fast-charging stations for EVs are designed to supply about 50 kW of power [15]. The established trend is to place these chargers off-board as these stations are bulky. The general block diagram of a DC fast-charging station is shown in Fig. 1, and the charger is connected to a common AC link.
General block diagram of DC fast-charging station
EV battery chargers can be integrated into an EV as an on-board charger or separated as an off-board charger. The power flows between the grids, and EV batteries can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The unidirectional power flow chargers are used as grid-to-vehicle charger applications, and bidirectional power flow chargers are used as grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-grid charger applications [16]. Unidirectional chargers can be controlled to charge the EV battery from the grid [17,18,19].
As per the previous review papers [20,21,22,23,24,25], they have reviewed two-level AC–DC converters, conventional boost rectifier, zero-voltage transition (ZVT) converters, zero-current transition (ZCT) converters, ZVT-ZCT converters, interleaved boost PFC converters, bridgeless boost PFC converters, and bridgeless interleaved boost PFC converters for the EV charging stations based on the efficiency, power factor, and input current THD and this paper reviews the practical viability of the energy-efficient converters based on the efficiency, power factor, power density, input current THD, and simulation analysis of Vienna rectifier for EV charging stations is carried out.
This paper presents a review of the recent battery-charging infrastructure for EVs in terms of converter topologies and power control strategies. From the analysis, the suitable converter has selected and simulated with a suitable controller based on the requirement of DC fast charger. In addition, three topologies of Vienna rectifier have been simulated. Based on the results of input current harmonics, output voltage, output current, and efficiency of three topologies of Vienna rectifier are analysed, and the graphs are plotted.
There are several numbers of converter topologies available for the rapid charging of batteries or ultra-capacitors. Some feasible options are highlighted in this paper. They are:
The unidirectional boost converter is shown in Fig. 2, and these converters are employed where the output voltage has to be boosted up for loads which require higher voltage [26].
Unidirectional boost converter [26]
The primary goal of using a boost converter instead of the conventional diode bridge rectifier is to improve power factor, to reduce the harmonics at the end, and to have a controlled DC voltage at the output if unwanted perturbations occur at the AC end.
The SWISS rectifier is shown in Fig. 3, and these rectifiers are employed where the efficiency has to be increased based on the application requirements [27].
The significant achievement in using the SWISS rectifier is to provide better efficiency compared to the conventional rectifiers. Compared to boost-type converter, buck-type system provides a wide output voltage control range, while maintaining PFC capability in the input, enables direct start-up, and allows for dynamic current limitations at the output.
The matrix converter is shown in Fig. 4, and these rectifiers are used for the regenerative operation of charging stations where it has to be used for the vehicle-to-grid applications with high efficiency [28].
Matrix converter is a forced commutated converter that uses an array of controlled bidirectional switches which allows high-frequency operations. This type of converter does not require DC-link circuit and any large energy storage element. It can improve the power factor and reduce the harmonics in the line current at the end.
Some of the features of the converter topologies are discussed and are highlighted in Table 2. From the detailed review of the few converter topologies, it can be concluded that the use of the Vienna rectifier for the implementation of the charging station is appropriate, due to the following reasons:
Harmonic contents are compensated.
Good efficiency when compared to the PWM rectifier, SWISS rectifier, and matrix converter.
Higher power factor, around 0.99, compared to the PWM rectifier, SWISS rectifier, and matrix converter.
In this paper, the PFC consisting of PI controller has been analysed for improving the power quality such as harmonics and power factor. The PFC with the PI controller is shown in Fig. 6. Other control strategies such as adaptive control, fuzzy logic control, sliding mode control, predictive control, or neural network control can be applied to improve the performance of the charging stations.
PFC with PI controller for EV applications [17]
The PFC controller consists of three PI controllers which can regulate the DC output voltage based on the reference voltage. Small overshoot, good damping of oscillations, and fast response are the three fundamental goals of the designer for the synthesis of the involved PI controller in a control loop. This PFC controller has two outer voltage loops and one inner current loop. The evaluation of PI controller parameters is one of the key issues in the design of a cascaded structure where the inner loop is designed to achieve fast response and outer loops are designed to achieve optimum regulation and stability [59].
Different topologies of Vienna rectifier
In this topology, the power factor correction controller is used to control the output voltage to a constant value and to make the input current sinusoidal. However, this topology has only one semiconducting switch and six diodes which reduce the efficiency of the system. Due to this connection, one of the most outstanding merit can be achieved which is low voltage stress on each component that will reduce half of the total DC bus voltage at each interval. By using analytical approximations, the average and the RMS current ratings of the semiconductor have been calculated [60]. By using the inductor present in the input side, these types of converter can increase the DC output voltage and improve the power quality in the input side as well.
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