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The climate of Greece is changing by way of increased drought, flooding, wildfires and sea level rise. These extreme weather conditions are likely to become more frequent and as a result landscapes and biodiversity will be affected.[1] Climate change will also cause human activities such as land-use change, urbanisation and soil degradation to further affect Greek''s ecosystems.[2] Ecosystems in Greece are already at their tipping point, close to their environmental limits.[2] Policies and laws have been put in place by the Greek government to try to manage these issues.
In 2021, Greece contributed 59.73 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.[3] From 2005 to 2021, the per capita carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions coming from Greece decreased dramatically. In 2005, Greece hit their record high for GHG emissions, at 132.57 tonnes. Since then, the GHG emissions per capita more than halved.[3] Greece''s emissions per capita decreased at a faster rate than the overall EU per capita emissions from 2005 to 2015.[4]
The largest contributor to the GHG emissions in Greece is carbon dioxide (CO2), followed by nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). In 2021, CO2 emissions accounted for almost 95% of all of Greece''s GHG emissions, at 56.31 million tonnes. In comparison to global emission levels, Greece emits 0.15% of the world''s CO2 emissions whereas China, the highest contributor, emits 14.36%, as of 2021.[3]
It has also been found that Greece''s CO2 emissions are coupled with economic growth, so when Greece''s CO2 emissions drop, so does the GDP.[3] Greece is working towards decoupling their GDP growth with their emissions, as several other countries have done successfully in the past.
On the individual level, the per capita GHG emissions in Greece as of 2021 was 5.93 tonnes. By sector, the top three sources of GHG emissions include electricity and heat, transportation, and aviation and shipping.[3]
In most total energy consumption measurements, there are three components–heat, electricity, and transport.[5] Those three components make up the largest sector releasing GHG emissions from 1990-2019 in Greece.
From 1990-2019, Greece''s largest sector releasing GHG emissions was electricity and heat. In 2022, Greece consumed 52.44 terawatt hours of energy.[5] These emissions are mainly made up of CO2 emissions. These emissions occur due to the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gases, for energy production. In 2021, it was found that 79.84% of Greece''s energy comes from fossil fuels, and of that, over half comes from oil.[5]
However, 19.39% of Greece''s energy also comes from renewable energy sources, as of 2021. From 2007 to 2021, the share of primary energy coming from renewable sources increased by over 15%.[5]
As of 2022, 56.69% of electricity production in Greece comes from fossil fuels. That means that 43.31% of electricity production comes from renewable energy technologies.[5] Another way to reduce CO2 emissions and increase of air pollution would be to transition electricity towards another low-carbon source such as nuclear energy. However, Greece has not explored that energy option yet.
During the touristic periods of the year in Greece, which falls from May to August, emissions from transportation such as ships, cars, and airplanes are at their highest, which is becoming more and more evident in popular tourist destinations such as in the Mediterranean area.[7]
Since the 1960s, Greece''s average annual temperature has been rising. In addition, from 2000 to 2020, Greece''s average annual temperature increase was 0.047°C, which is 0.011°C above the global average.[11] Assuming the amount of global GHG emissions remain high, temperature increases in summer and autumn are produced to be higher than in spring, with the mainland regions experiencing more warming than the islands in all seasons except in autumn.[11]
These temperature rises pose a threat to electricity supply, as the increased heat will put stress on thermal power plants, reducing the efficiency and increasing the need for cooling water. The population of Greece will be more likely to demand more electricity for air conditioning during extreme heat events which may result in power outages as seen in 2017 and 2020.[11]
The fire season is expected to rise by 15% and 70%, with a drop of 10% to 30% days of rainfall.[1] This, alongside increased chance of heatwaves will further cause disruption to the Greek forests, affecting the ecosystems.
Sustainability of the beach tourism sector will be challenged; the increasing erosion and inundation will cause the carrying-capacity of these highly populous beaches to become sensitive.[17] Not only will the tourism sector be affected, but so will the economies that rely on the coast such as agriculture. Estimates for the cost of sea level rise show a cost of 24.9 billion for a 0.5m rise and 265.2 billion for a 1m rise in the sea level.[15]
Greece has one of the most biodiverse regions in the Earth, being a biodiversity hot spot.[20] Greece is home to 22% of the biodiverse Mediterranean species and is home to 25 times more species than its landmass would suggest it could have.[20] Greece''s position in the Mediterranean basin is reason as to why the country has extremely high levels of biodiversity.[20] An increase of 3.6 in the global temperature could cause a loss of over 50% of plant species in the Mediterranean.[2]
However, Greece''s position in the Mediterranean basin also make it one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change.[21] Climate change has been steadily occurring in Greece for the last century with winters and summers slowly warming.[21] Temperatures have been increasing, but the precipitation of the area has been slowly decreasing.[21]
The Greek forests have many drought-tolerant tree species and so it has been thought that these trees would be favoured with the proposed increase in temperatures.[21] However, a severe drought in eastern Greece killed many of the drought-tolerant Mediterranean pines.[21] The increase in temperatures will affect how the disturbances of insect and pathogen outbreaks occur.[21]
As of 2016, over 84% of Europe''s aquaculture production comes from marine life that are farmed at sea, which are subject to the environmental conditions that are outside of human control.[22] One of these farming locations is the Mediterranean Sea which surrounds Greece''s mainland and all its islands. Aquaculture in the Mediterranean is important due to the overfishing that has occurred in the areas for several decades. More specifically, coastal hake, sole, and red mullet natural fisheries have been severely overexploited.[23]
The most common Mediterranean aquaculture practice is marine cage farming, and 95% of the total production is made up of European seabass and gilthead seabream.[22] Greece is the main EU producer for these two species of fish, with annual production exceeding 135,000 ton, accounting for 60% of the EU supply and 24% of the global supply.[22] This industry is very significant towards Greece''s economic wellbeing.
Heat waves will likely cause mass mortality events of species lower on the food chain such as invertebrate organisms.[25] Increased levels of CO2 in the water will also decrease calcium carbonate levels, which in turn will negatively affect the skeletal growth of key marine species, such as coral. Since these species are at the bottom of the food chain, their decline could greatly affect those higher up on the food chain who are depending on it.[26]
The agriculture sector in Greece accounts for 13% of the labour force in Greece, with one-third of exports in Greece being from agricultural products.[27] Climate change is set to increase the mean average temperature leading to a positive increase in the number of hotter days and nights and frost days to decrease.[27]
In the order that Greece became a party to the convention or protocol, regardless of whether the convention or protocol had entered into force yet:[32]
In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted and opened for signature in Rio de Janeiro at the Rio Convention. This convention served as the first large scale agreement between signing countries and the UN to reduce the impact that climate change was predicted to have globally. Greece signed this convention in 1992 and ratified it in 1994, adopting the 1st National Programme for Climate Change in 1995.[44] This program took into account both economic and social parameters and set a restriction for Greece to reduce their contribution to the increase of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly CO2, N2O and CH4, by 15% by 2000.[44]
In 2002, Greece adopted the 2nd National Programme for Climate Change, which added measures for Greece to meet the goal set by the Kyoto Protocol by setting restrictions on 3 more greenhouse gasses, hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorochemicals (PFC), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Greece was tasked with reducing their emissions from these 3 gasses, along with the three gasses from the 1st program, by 25%.[44] The 2nd National Programme also expressed Greece''s need to develop appropriate infrastructure to handle energy by natural gas and to further explore renewable energy sources that were able to be implemented.[44]
The Kyoto Protocol was created in 1997, but wasn''t fully ratified and put into motion until 2005. It is an agreement to follow the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by setting goals for industrialized countries to limit their greenhouse gas emissions and reduce global warming. Industrialized countries are labeled as Annex 1 countries, whereas all other countries in the treaty are labeled as Non-Annex 1, and they are only required to report their emissions but not set to any limitations. Greece was categorized as an Annex 1 country. Greece ratified the protocol in 2002. By 2005, 192 countries ratified the agreement, and the protocol entered into force.[45]
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